Africa

Notes Beginnings of the Liberation Struggle in Africa MI- An increase of nationalist leaders was a result of European broken promises and global issues such as world wars and the Great Depression. African leaders began to criticize Europeans
 * p666-669**
 * small groups of Western-educated Africans as a result of precolonial efforts prior to WWI -> major of Africa under Euro rule
 * western-educated Africans loyal to British and French in WWI
 * war efforts hurt Euro rule in the long run
 * villagers unhappy that all food went to army, shipping shortages
 * Euro promised better jobs and public honors for enlistment = riots after war
 * protest intensified in 1930s b/c of economic issues from Great Depression
 * African American politicals of **Marcus Garvey** and **W. E. B. Du Bois** impacted emerging nationalist leaders
 * efforts towards building of **pan-African** organizations and to arouse all-Africa loyalities
 * pan-Africanism unworkable in Africa
 * nurtured the **Négritude** literary movement to combat racial stereotyping
 * argued that precolonial life was better
 * societies where women were freer, elderly well cared for, and attitudes towards sex was healthier
 * well-educated Africans in British territories given opportunities to build political associations
 * emphasis on colonial political movement after some representation was granted
 * 1930s - new leaders attack policies of the British through newspapers and politically

Liberation of Nonsettler Africa MI- As a result of WWII, European nations with colonies began to industrialize in order to supply supplies in the war. At the same time, decolonization began in non-settlers colonies through peaceful means which was met with violent retaliation. two main paths to decolonization in non-settler Africa
 * p723 - p.727**
 * effects of WWII on colonies = more disruptive, forced labor and confiscation of crops/minerals returned, earnings cut down
 * Africans drawn to opportunity of using Euro weps. to destroy Euros, although they fought bravely, were faced with racial discrimination
 * after Nazis defeat French and Belgium, their military prowess was shattered - 1940
 * wartime needs of the British and Free French = removal of colonial policies that restricted industrial development in Africa
 * factories est. to produce vegetable oil/food/minerals in W. Africa and S. Africa
 * migration of peasants to towns -> urban growth
 * those that could not find work used by nationalist politicians
 * first pioneered by Nwame Nkrumah in British Gold Coast colony (Ghana)
 * a radical leader who was educated in African missionary schools in and the U.S
 * non-violent protests used against gov't-controlled marketing boards and favoritism towards British merchants
 * police fire on protesters = riots in many towns 1948
 * riots supported by urban workers and farmers but Western educated leaders slow to organize groups b/c they were scared to lose political concession
 * Nkrumah est. **Convention Peoples Party** (**CPP**) w/ new style of politics using mass rallies, boycotts and strikes
 * Nkrumah's power was not weaken even though imprisoned and British recognized him as the prime minister of Ghana in 1957
 * peaceful devolution of power to African nationalist = independence of most British non-settler colonies 1960
 * French negotiated deals with people they controlled b/c of costly military struggles to hold on
 * by 1960 all French colonies free
 * slow French retreat = moderate leaders have control

Repression and Guerrilla War: The Struggle for the Settler Colonies MI- People of settler colonies turned away from peaceful riots to radical actions and campaigned guerrilla warfares. Although defeated by Europeans, the Europeans began to negotiate their independence.
 * peaceful withdrawal was unworkable in settler colonies b/c of the amount of Euros living there
 * settlers emigrated to these colonies to make it their permanent home -> fought all attempts of turning over political control
 * refused all reforms that required giving up their land => African leaders turned to violence rather than nonviolent means
 * 1950 - people in Kenya fed up with nonviolent approach of **Jomo Kenyatta** and of the **Kenya African Union (KAU**) and began to organize with more radical groups
 * formed the Land Freedom Army in 1950, radicals mounted campaign of terror and guerrilla warfare vs all Euros and any collaborators
 * British responded with all-out military efforts also arrested Kenyatta and the KAU which eliminated nonviolent alternatives
 * British open for negotiations with nationalists although rebel movement was defeated despite objections from settlers
 * Kenyetta released from prison to become spokesperson for Kenya and Kenya won its independence in 1963
 * one-party rule remained until 1980s as most stable African state
 * struggle for Algeria's independence longer/vicious than Kenya's b/c France saw Algeria as an integral part of them
 * **National Liberation Front** (**FLN**) mobilized large segment of pop. in full-scale revolt vs French rule
 * defeating this revolt = French redemption from defeats in Vietnam
 * defeated the rebels but gradually negotiated the independence of Algeria after de Gaulle came to power - 1958
 * de Gaulle was convince that France will not regain status if all resources went towards Algeria issues also people were wearily of the "endless war"
 * Secret Army Organization (OAS) directed against those who favored independence for Algeria
 * toppled gov't in Paris in 1958 and put an end to Fourth Republic
 * was close to toppling Fifth Republic and assassinating de Gaulle

The Persistence of White Supremacy in South Africa MI- There is an end to white settler dominance in southern Africa except in South Africa where white supremacy grew to the point where the white minority established apartheid and placed a monopoly on power.
 * in Southern Africa, violent revolutions = end of white settler dominance in Portuguese colonies; Angola/Mozambique - 1975, Zimbabwe - 1980
 * white minority able to maintain supremacy only in South Africa b/c white pop. was divided between Dutch-descended Afrikaners and recent arrived English speakers
 * 1980, settler-descended pop. reached 4.5mil
 * Afrikaners had no homeland to fall back to
 * Afrikaner racism more explicit and elaborate than other colonies
 * their defeat by British in Boer War 1899-1902 allowed the white settler minority to maintain dominance
 * internal political control to the Afrikaners after British felt guilty of thousands who died in concentration camps
 * continued subjugation of black Africans by the **Afrikaner National Party** 1930-1940
 * emerged as majority party in all-white South African legislature -> devoted to wining independence from Britain and est. long lasting white domination over political/social/economical life of new nation
 * Afrikaners est. **apartheid** in 1948 - rigid system of racial segregation
 * reserved best jobs for whites, defined contacts b/w two groups
 * preserved white supremacy with a brutal police state, above restrictions and limited higher education

South Africa: The Apartheid State and Its Demise MI- Afrikaners placed stricter rules on the black majority of South Africa but this lessened when de Klerk pushed for reforms to dismantle apartheid. Afrikaners willing to negotiate is seen through the release of Mandela who later became the first black president of South Africa.
 * p.804 - p.806**
 * years after India gained independence, South Africa was still controlled by Portugal until 1970s
 * S. Africa was largest, most populous, richest and most strategic area that had not been liberated
 * Afrikaners solidified their internal control of the country under the Nationalist party
 * Nationalist won complete independence from Great Britain with elections where blacks not allowed to vote
 * apartheid = monopoly of power for whites along with segregation
 * stiff jail sentences if African caught without pass or in non-permitted area
 * **homelands** created within South Africa for each designated tribal group within African pop.
 * poor homelands = ready supply of factory workers, laborers eventually have to return to homeland
 * gov't prohibited all forms of black protest and repressed even nonviolent protests
 * **African Nation Congress** was declared illegal, **Walter Sisulu** and **Nelson Mandela** sent to maximum-security prisons, **Steve Biko** was murdered
 * regime capitalized on personal and ethnic divisions through spies and police informers
 * hardening hostility b/w white minority and black majority = violence => international boycott to weaken South Africa economically
 * **F. W. de Klerk** pushed for reforms to dismantle apartheid
 * released Mandela = whites ready for negations
 * Mandela lead the National Congress party and became 1st black president of South Africa

only way to be successful was war || Jonas Savimbi-UNITA reason for civil war Agostinho Neto - MPLA 1st president || 30 years of war || Petilion - reforms and civil rights gave Mumba was aware in the minerals in the land ||  || violent resistance || Nkrumah ||  || resentment Mau Mau Movement || Dedan Kimathi || british settlers were assasinated || Zimbabwe Britain - 1965 with Unilateral Declaration of Independence - full on April 18 1980 - Joshua Nkomo (ZAPU)- Cannon Banana first president, Robert Mugabe leader of ZANU and current president - corruption/poverty/civil wars not successful
 * Nation || Date || Colonial Power || Nature of Movement || Key Leader(s) || Success? ||
 * Algeria || july 5 1962 || British || violent organizations using terrorism ||  || violent warfare
 * Angola || nov. 11 1975 || Portuguese ||  || Holden Roberto-FNLA
 * Belgian Congo || june 30 1960 || Belgium ||  || king Leopold the 2nd took over Congo
 * Ghana ||  ||   || peaceful to radical
 * Guinea ||  ||   ||   ||   ||   ||
 * Kenya || dec. 12 1963 || British || military movement -
 * Madagascar ||  ||   ||   ||   ||   ||

South Africa Britain - 1934 from Britain, 1994 -> free from white majority rule, Afrikaner National, Walter Sisulu w/ Nelson Mandela(first black president) to stop apartheid -